Chapter One
The Evolution of Emotion: From Cosmic Forces to Personal Experience
Once understood as external cosmic forces influenced by the divine, emotions have gradually become internalised as personal, psychological experiences. Yet, rituals provide structured spaces for expressing and managing these emotions across time and culture.
Dr Hartley
Humanity’s quest to understand itself has always placed emotions at the centre of that pursuit. Whether in the flickering glow of ancient firelight or the stillness of a modern therapist’s office, emotions have remained the alchemical force that transforms the raw experience into the gold of identity. But what does it mean to feel, and how have those feelings shaped our perception of self across time and cultures?
In this chapter, we explore how the understanding of emotions has evolved from external forces shaped by the divine to internal experiences managed by psychology. By tracing the history of emotions through myth, philosophy, and religious practice, we uncover how emotions have shaped human identity and continue to impact how we navigate the world today.
The Pre-Modern Emotional Cosmos
For much of history, emotions were not viewed as internal states. In ancient societies, feelings were considered external forces—gifts or curses from the gods, cosmic influences acting upon individuals, and signs of divine intervention. Louis Dupré, in *Passage to Modernity*, discusses how emotions were often entwined with the divine or cosmic order, representing a connection between individuals and the universe. People did not simply feel emotions; they experienced them as supernatural or cosmic forces. For instance, a Mesopotamian farmer facing a drought might interpret his despair not as a personal crisis but as part of a larger cosmic imbalance requiring ritualistic appeasement of the gods. This example illustrates how emotions were deeply integrated into the time’s larger cultural and spiritual frameworks, with individuals viewing their emotional states as part of the divine cosmic plan.
This idea resonates with Julian Jaynes’s controversial theory in *The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind*. Jaynes argued that human consciousness operated differently until about 3,000 years ago, with the brain’s hemispheres functioning separately. This led people to perceive their thoughts and emotions as coming from external voices—often interpreted as commands from the gods. In this framework, emotions were not internal sensations but communications from divine beings, reinforcing the ancient notion that emotions were external forces acting upon humans.
The Greeks: Emotion as Divine Forces
Greek mythology formalised the idea of emotions as external forces, often personified by divine figures. A prime example is the *Erinyes*, or Furies, who embodied vengeful anger and guilt. In *These Deities Relentlessly Pursue Oresteia*, Orestes, after he kills his mother, reflects how emotions like guilt and rage were viewed as forces beyond human control, demanding retribution. These externalised emotions were seen as destructive and essential to restoring cosmic justice, revealing how ancient societies conceptualised emotional experiences as part of a larger divine order. The *Erinyes* illustrate how these emotions, while chaotic, were tied to a balance within the universe, embodying both the destabilising and corrective power of emotions when viewed through the lens of sacred law and moral consequence.
Greek philosophers also offered contrasting views of emotion. In *The Republic*, Plato argued that emotions should be subordinated to reason. He divided the soul into three parts: reason, spirit, and appetite, assigning emotions to the latter two categories, which had to be controlled for harmony to prevail. Yet, in *The Nicomachean Ethics*, his student Aristotle took a more balanced approach. For Aristotle, emotions could lead to virtue when aligned adequately with reason. The *golden mean*—his concept of balance—suggests that emotions like courage or generosity could shape ethical behaviour when moderated by reason. Unlike Plato, Aristotle saw emotions as essential components of a virtuous life, which could be channelled for personal and societal good.
Emotions in Medieval Christianity
In medieval Christianity, emotions were reinterpreted within salvation and damnation. Dupré explains that emotions like guilt, love, and fear were central to one’s relationship with God. Mass and confession provided structured spaces for expressing and managing these emotions. Confession, for example, allows individuals to verbalise their guilt and seek redemption through emotional release. Emotions were personal experiences and spiritual acts tied to divine grace or spiritual peril. Rituals such as the Christian Eucharist provided formalised means for individuals to engage their emotions of guilt, repentance, and joy in communal ritual settings.
Pagan rituals, like *keening* in Celtic funerary rites, also shaped emotional expression. This public outpouring of grief was a personal expression and a communal ritual connecting the living with their ancestors. In this sense, emotions like grief were collective experiences that could influence the community and the cosmic balance.
The Renaissance: From External to Internal
The Renaissance and the Enlightenment marked a dramatic shift in how emotions were perceived. Dupré notes that individualism and reason became dominant, moving emotions from cosmic or communal forces to internal, personal experiences. Philosophers like René Descartes, in *Passions of the Soul*, proposed that emotions were bodily responses interpreted by the soul, suggesting a new framework for understanding emotions as individual sensations.
David Hume further developed this shift in *A Treatise of Human Nature*, describing emotions as “passions” that drive behaviour. Hume argued that reason alone could not motivate action; emotion stirred people into motion. This move toward internalisation represented a significant shift from the external, mystical understanding of emotions.
The 19th Century: William James and the Physiology of Emotion
William James, one of the most influential figures in modern psychology, further expanded the internalisation of emotions. In his *Principles of Psychology* and the *James-Lange Theory of Emotion*, James argued that emotions were rooted in physiological responses to stimuli. According to this theory, the body reacts first, and the emotional experience follows. We are not sad because we cry; we cry, and thus we feel sadness. James’s theory positioned emotions as internal, bodily reactions rather than external forces.
This view represented the culmination of the shift from external to internal emotions, paralleling the broader changes that Dupré describes from medieval to modern thought. Emotions, once external cosmic phenomena, were now seen as biochemical processes within the individual.
The 20th Century: Freud, Jung, and Adler and the Internalization of Human Experience
Louis Dupré, in his exploration of modern thought, engaged with the works of Freud and Jung, particularly in how they contributed to the internalisation of human experience, including emotions. Dupré saw Freud’s work as a critical development in understanding how the unconscious mind processes emotions. Still, he also critiqued Freud’s reductionist tendencies—viewing emotions as driven mainly by repressed instincts and desires. Dupré appreciated Freud’s insights into how emotions shape personal identity but felt Freud’s psychoanalysis, by focusing predominantly on libido and sexual drives, often neglected the transcendent and spiritual dimensions of human experience.
On the other hand, Dupré was more sympathetic to Jung’s approach, particularly Jung’s emphasis on the collective unconscious and the archetypal dimensions of human emotion. He praised Jung’s focus on how emotions bridge the individual psyche and larger, universal patterns, reflecting a more holistic and spiritual understanding of the self. Dupré recognised that Jung saw emotions not only as psychological forces but as connections to the deeper, symbolic layers of human existence, which aligned more closely with the pre-modern, cosmic view of emotions that Dupré often referenced in his works. Jung’s integration of mythology, spirituality, and psychology provided a framework that Dupré felt was more in line with the complexity of human emotional life.
While Adler’s work was less central to Dupré’s analysis, Adler’s focus on social belonging and individual striving resonated with Dupré’s broader concerns about modernity’s emphasis on individualism. Dupré acknowledged that Adler’s concept of the inferiority complex and its emotional underpinnings offered a crucial link between personal emotional development and social dynamics, providing a more socially embedded view of the self.
In sum, Dupré recognised that the 20th-century theories of Freud, Jung, and Adler represented a critical evolution in understanding emotions as internal forces, profoundly shaping the self. However, he believed that Jung’s approach was the most comprehensive, as it acknowledged the emotional, spiritual, and symbolic dimensions of human experience, providing a more balanced view that could bridge modern psychology with the pre-modern cosmic perspective.
The 21st Century and the Emotional Crisis
In *Selfie: How We Became So Self-Obsessed & What It’s Doing to Us*, Will Storr argues that the Enlightenment’s emphasis on individualism has evolved into a modern-day obsession with the self, fueled by social media and self-help culture. This pressure to constantly optimise and present idealised versions of ourselves has led to an epidemic of anxiety, depression, and loneliness as individuals become trapped in cycles of self-comparison and perfectionism.
Storr explains that this emotional crisis is rooted in the Enlightenment’s legacy, which celebrated autonomy and individual achievement. However, what once promoted personal freedom and rational self-examination has become an unhealthy fixation on self-optimization. People are increasingly disconnected from the communal and cosmic frameworks that once provided emotional support, leading to a pervasive sense of inadequacy and isolation in the face of unrealistic societal expectations.
This modern emotional landscape can also be traced back to the foundational psychological ideas of Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung, and Alfred Adler. Freud’s focus on the unconscious, introspection, and the complex workings of the *id*, *ego*, and *superego* emphasised understanding the self as an internal battleground, pushing modern culture toward intense self-examination and self-analysis. Freud’s influence helped create a world where individual emotional health became a central focus, contributing to today’s self-help and therapy-driven culture.
Jung’s ideas of *individuation* and exploring the self through archetypes paved the way for the modern preoccupation with personal growth and fulfilment. His focus on self-realisation, often seen in spiritual and New Age movements, aligns with contemporary obsessions with self-optimization and the search for deeper meaning. Jung’s theories about the quest for individual wholeness helped shape modern narratives about the need for personal perfection, adding to the pressure for self-improvement that Storr critiques.
Alfred Adler’s concepts of the *inferiority complex* and *striving for superiority* added another layer to the modern individualism that Storr critiques. Adler’s ideas about social comparison and the pursuit of social success laid the groundwork for the competitive social structures that are prevalent today, where external achievements and the validation of others often measure self-worth. This dynamic is amplified by social media, where individuals constantly compare themselves to curated, idealised versions of others, leading to feelings of inadequacy.
Together, Freud, Jung, and Adler’s psychological theories helped foster the modern cultural climate of self-focus and individualism, which, while initially promoting personal growth and self-understanding, have now led to a society obsessed with self-improvement and external validation. This intense focus on the self has contributed to Storr’s emotional crisis, where people find themselves isolated from deeper, communal connections, trapped in cycles of self-criticism and striving for unattainable ideals. The shift from a focus on personal autonomy to one of relentless self-optimization has, ironically, undermined emotional well-being, leaving individuals disconnected from the very sources of emotional and spiritual support that once grounded human experience.
The Tension Between Science and the Sacred
Today, emotions are caught between the scientific and the mystical. On one hand, clinical psychology encourages people to manage their emotions through therapy and pharmaceuticals. Conversely, spiritual practices urge individuals to trust their feelings and emotionally heal through rituals, crystals, and astrology.
Dupré’s reflections on modernity highlight the tension between scientific rationalism and older, mystical understandings of emotion. Both perspectives coexist today, leaving individuals navigating between viewing emotions as chemical reactions and seeing them as mystical forces that require ritual engagement.
To deepen the discussion on the tension between scientific rationalism and mystical understandings of emotion, we can draw from the works of Fritjof Capra and David Bohm, both of whom have made significant contributions to exploring the intersection between science and spirituality.
In *The Tao of Physics*, Fritjof Capra highlights the parallels between modern physics and Eastern mysticism. He argues that the discoveries of quantum mechanics challenge the rigid materialism of classical science, opening up new ways of understanding the universe that align with mystical perspectives. Capra suggests that emotions, like the particles in quantum theory, cannot be fully understood in isolation but must be viewed concerning the broader cosmic order. This resonates with the mystical belief that emotions are not simply internal states but are connected to the universe’s larger, more complex energies and rhythms. In this light, Capra bridges the scientific and the mystical by showing how quantum physics provides a framework where emotions could be seen as interconnected with the fabric of reality, thus allowing for both psychological and spiritual dimensions.
David Bohm’s work on the *implicate order* further supports this synthesis. Bohm proposed that the universe operates on two levels: the *explicate order*, the world of observable phenomena, and the *implicate order*, an underlying, enfolded reality where everything is interconnected. Like other aspects of reality, Bohm’s theory suggests that emotions emerge from a deeper, interconnected whole. This implies that emotions are not just biochemical reactions but are deeply woven into the fabric of existence. Bohm’s concept encourages a view where emotions might be influenced by and reflective of a greater, undivided whole, akin to how mystical traditions perceive emotional states as part of a cosmic balance that can be addressed through ritual and spiritual practice.
Both Capra and Bohm offer valuable insights into how we might reconcile the scientific view of emotions as physical processes with the mystical perspective of emotions as expressions of deeper spiritual forces. Their work suggests that emotions may not need to be seen as solely chemical reactions or mystical forces but as manifestations of both a scientifically measurable and a spiritually significant reality.
In this context, Dupré’s reflections on the coexistence of these perspectives gain additional depth. Capra and Bohm show that the division between science and mysticism is not as rigid as it may seem. Emotions, like the quantum particles and interconnected fields described by Capra and Bohm, may be understood through scientific inquiry and spiritual practice, offering individuals a more integrated approach to emotional health and spiritual fulfilment.
Conclusion: The Alchemy of Emotion
The journey of emotion, from cosmic forces to personal experience, reflects the alchemical transformation of human identity. Emotions shape how we see ourselves and our place in the world. Whether viewed as external divine visitations or internal psychological processes, emotions are the central force shaping the self. As we explore how emotions have been understood and managed through history, we can better understand the complex ways they continue to influence human experience today.
However, while emotions have moved inward in modern thought, rituals provide externalised spaces for expressing and managing those emotions. Rituals act as containers where emotions are given form, shape, and meaning, allowing individuals to navigate their internal experiences in a communal or structured setting. This setup lays the foundation for a deeper exploration of ritual practices, which will be the focus of the following chapter. By tracing the historical and cultural evolution of emotional expression through ritual, we can uncover how these practices help guide the emotional journey, giving it purpose and direction.
**Sources**
1. Aeschylus, *The Oresteia* (London: Penguin Classics, 1976), 87-103.
2. Plato, *The Republic*, trans. Desmond Lee (New York: Penguin Books, 2007), 154-189.
3. Aristotle, *The Nicomachean Ethics*, trans. David Ross (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 112-121.
4. Augustine of Hippo, *The Confessions*, trans. Maria Boulding (New York: Vintage Spiritual Classics, 1998), 53-59.
5. Thomas Aquinas, *Summa Theologica*, ed. Timothy McDermott (London: Christian Classics, 1989), 277-285.
6. Bridget Haggerty, *The Tradition of Keening*, Irish Culture and Customs, 2009.
7. René Descartes, *Passions of the Soul*, trans. Stephen Voss (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, 1989), 33-45.
8. Lyndy Abraham, *A Dictionary of Alchemical Imagery* (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 142-154.
9. David Hume, *A Treatise of Human Nature* (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), 295-310.
10. Will Storr, *Selfie: How We Became So Self-Obsessed & What It’s Doing to Us* (London: Picador, 2017).
11. Fritjof Capra, *The Tao of Physics: An Exploration of the Parallels between Modern Physics and Eastern Mysticism* (Boston: Shambhala Publications, 2010), 113-130.
12. David Bohm, *Wholeness and the Implicate Order* (London: Routledge, 1980), 57-78.
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